 Syncerus
caffer
African buffalo |
Taxonomy | Description
| Reproduction | Ecology
| Behavior | Distribution
| Conservation | Remarks
| Literature |
| Taxonomy
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Syncerus caffer [Sparrman, 1779].
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Citation: K. Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl. Stockholm, 40:79.
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Type locality: South Africa, Cape of Good Hope, Sunday River, Algoa
Bay.
The taxonomic record (above) is taken from Wilson and Reeder (1993). The
African buffalo is the only extant member of the genus Syncerus.
There are two extreme forms (savannah and forest types), which are
commonly split into two or three subspecies: the large black savannah or
Cape buffalo, Syncerus caffer caffer, the small reddish forest buffalo,
S. c. nanus, and an intermediate form from West Africa, the Sudan
buffalo S. c. brachyceros (Buchholtz, 1990; Kingdon, 1997). A
fourth subspecies, S. c. mathewsi, the relict "mountain buffalo",
is recognized by some authorities (see Kingdon, 1997), while East (1999)
splits the savannah buffalo into three subspecies, the west African S.
c. brachyceros, the central African S. c. aequinoctialis, and
the southern S. c. caffer, in addition to recognizing S. c. nanus
as a separate group. The long list of synonyms for Syncerus caffer
includes adamauae, adametzi, adolfifriederici,
aequinoctialis, athiensis, azrakensis,
beddingtoni, bornouensis, brachyceros, bubuensis,
centralis, corniculatus, cottoni, cubangensis,
cunenensis, diehli, gariepensis, gazae,
geoffroyi, houyi, hunti, hylaeus,
limpopoensis, lomamiensis, massaicus, matthewsi,
mayi, nanus, neumanni, niediecki, and nuni
(Wilson and Reeder, 1993).
General Characteristics
Male African buffalo are considerably larger than females, and savannah races
can be up to twice as heavy large as S. c. nanus, the forest race
(Nowak, 1991). Forest buffalo tend to measure less than 120 cm in height
and weigh under 320 kg (Kingdon, 1997).
Reported measurements for African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) |
| Source |
Adult Weight |
Head & Body Length |
Shoulder Height
|
Tail Length |
Alden et al., 1995
(for S. c. caffer) |
500-700 kg |
240-340 cm |
140-160 cm |
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Alden et al., 1995
(for S. c. nanus) |
265-320 kg |
180-220 cm |
100-130 cm |
- |
| Buchholtz, 1990 |
265-680 kg |
220-340 cm |
100-170 cm |
70-110 cm |
| Kingdon, 1997 |
250-850 kg |
170-340 cm |
100-170 cm |
50-80 cm |
| Nowak, 1991 |
300-900 kg |
210-340 cm |
100-170 cm |
75-110 cm |
Adult African buffalo have a sparse covering of short hair, which tends to
thin with age (Buchholtz, 1990; Nowak, 1991; Kingdon, 1997). The body
color is unpatterned, and ranges from rich red to black depending on the
subspecies (Alden et al., 1995). Although morphological differences
between forest and savannah buffaloes are very great, intermediate and mixed
types do occur (Kingdon, 1997). Adult savannah buffalo are extremely
dark brown or black, with males typically darker than females (Buchholtz,
1990; Nowak, 1991). Old male savannah buffalo may develop grizzled
white patches around the eyes Alden et al., 1995). Forest buffalo
are typically red to reddish brown (Buchholtz, 1990; Nowak, 1991). As
in the savannah buffalo, males tend to darken with age, sometimes becoming
blackish (Alden et al., 1995). The chin and underside are often
paler, and the face and legs may have patches of contrasting
color (Kingdon, 1997).
In all races the body is barrel-shaped and the chest wide (Nowak, 1991; Alden
et al., 1995). The legs are stocky, the head massive, and the
neck short and thick (Nowak, 1991; Alden et al., 1995). The
long tail has a terminal tuft (Alden et al., 1995). Apart from
the horns, the most distinguishing character on the head are the large, droopy
ears which are fringed with long hair on the edges (Nowak, 1991; Alden et
al., 1995). In forest buffalo, two long white or pale yellow hair
tracts line the insides or the ear and extend as tufts along the edges
(Buchholtz, 1990).
Both sexes of the African buffalo bear horns, although their size and shape
is quite variable (Alden et al., 1995). In the Cape race, the
horns are hook-shaped, curving downwards from their origin in the skull before
curling upwards and inwards (Buchholtz, 1990). The horns are massive
in males, broadening into a heavy shield known as a boss across the forehead
(Nowak, 1991; Alden et al., 1995). Horn length may be as long
as 160 cm along the outer curve in large males, with a horizontal spread
greater than 90 cm (Buchholtz, 1990; Alden et al., 1995). The
horns of female savannah buffalo are shorter and thinner than in males, with
the boss incomplete or absent (Alden et al., 1995). The horns
of forest buffalo are much shorter and sweep back from the head in line with
the forehead (Alden et al., 1995). Males do not develop a frontal
boss, with horn length only reaching 30-40 cm (Buchholtz, 1990; Alden
et al., 1995).
Ontogeny and Reproduction
Syncerus caffer breeds throughout the year in some areas, but births
tend to be seasonal where rainfall is limited (Nowak, 1991). Females
cycle every 23 days, and are in estrus for 5-6 days. Gestation is
approximately 340 days long, after which a single calf (rarely two) is born
(Buchholtz, 1990; Nowak, 1991). In the Serengeti, the breeding peak
is towards then end of the rains (June-July), with the resulting single calf
(rarely two) arriving in the second half of the following wet season (Buchholtz,
1990; Nowak, 1991). An interbirth interval of two years is normal (Kingdon,
1997).
Young are born reddish-brown or blackish-brown in color (forest buffalo calves
may be bright red), and have a thick covering of hair (Buchholtz, 1990; Nowak,
1991). Birth weights for the species average 40 kilograms (Nowak, 1991),
but Cape buffalo weigh 55-60 kg at birth (Buchholtz, 1990). Calves
share a strong bond with their mothers, who will protect their infant even
when directly threatened by a predator (Kingdon, 1997; Alden et al.,
1995). Calves are weaned around six months of age, and reach sexual
maturity between 3.5 and 5 years of age (Buchholtz, 1990; Nowak, 1991).
Wild individuals have been recorded as old as 18 years old, while in
captivity buffalo can live well into their twenties (20-26) - one captive
specimen died at 29 years and 6 months of age (Buchholtz, 1990; Nowak, 1991).
Ecology and Behavior
S. caffer inhabits a wide range of habitats across Africa (Nowak,
1991). Cape buffalo are found in savannah and woodland mosaics, preferring
areas access to grass, water, and dense cover, such as thickets, reeds, or
forest (Buchholtz, 1990; Nowak, 1991; Kingdon, 1997). They will seek
out glades where possible, but can stay out in the open without shade for
extended periods of time (Kingdon, 1997). Forest buffalo are found
in swampy jungle, primary rainforest and secondary-growth forests (Buchholtz,
1990; Alden et al., 1995). S. c. nanus feeds in grassy
glades, along watercourses, and waterlogged basins, the wet conditions of
which ensure a year-round supply of food (Kingdon, 1997).
The social structure of savannah buffalo has been closely studied, while
less is known about forest buffalo (Buchholtz, 1990). Savannah buffalo
live in large herds containing 50 to 500 animals (Nowak, 1991). Within
these herds are a number of smaller social groups, made up of several females
and their most recent offspring (up to two years of age) (Buchholtz, 1990;
Nowak, 1991). The bond between females is very strong, and all animals
will respond to distress calls, especially those made by calves. This
cohesion also provides protection for weakened individuals, such that blind
buffaloes and three-legged individuals are able to survive in a herd setting
(Nowak, 1991; Kingdon, 1997). Bachelor groups containing as many as
twelve males are also found within the herd substructure, along with groups
comprised of similarly-aged juveniles (Nowak, 1991). Adult males are
found either associated with a female group or apart from the herd in a small
unit of similar older males (Nowak, 1991). Old males may also
be solitary (Buchholtz, 1990). Temporary aggregations of 2,000 to 3,000
buffalo occasionally form from several smaller herds, but these large groups
lack social cohesion and are only possible on large, rich pastures (Nowak,
1991; Kingdon, 1997). Forest buffalo are found in smaller groups than
their savannah relatives, usually with 8-20 related individuals (Nowak, 1991).
Kingdon (1997) gives the maximum group size for forest buffalo as 12,
composed of related females and their offspring with attendant male(s).
Male forest buffalo also associate in bachelor herds or live alone
(Kingdon, 1997). Hearing appears to be the most important sense to
all African buffalo, and quiet lowing (similar to domestic cattle) serves
to ensure herd cohesiveness both in dense forest (where it is necessary)
as well as in open grassland (Nowak, 1991; Kingdon, 1997).
Savannah buffalo tend to be non-migratory, inhabiting a home range which
is largely exclusive to that group (Nowak, 1991). Home ranges
can vary in size from 126 to 1,075 square kilometers, supporting population
densities between 0.17 and 3.77 individuals per square kilometer (Nowak,
1991). In areas in east Africa with high rainfall, home range size
may be as small as 10 square kilometers with a density of 18 buffalo per
square kilometer (Nowak, 1991). Territoriality has never been observed,
but groups remain attached to traditional ranges even when conditions change
(Buchholtz, 1990; Kingdon, 1997).
Savannah buffalo are active throughout the day, spending 18 hours per day
walking (Nowak, 1991). Simultaneous grazing occurs as the herds move,
although feeding is most frequent in the late afternoon and evening (Nowak,
1991). The grazing and trampling by buffalo favours rapid regrowth
of vegetation, which in turn encourages repeated foraging (Kingdon, 1997).
As a result, herds tend to move through their home range on a circuitous
route 50-105 km long (Nowak, 1991). S. caffer is grazer,
feeding on grasses, herbs, swamp vegetation, and occasionally browsing on
leaves (Buchholtz, 1990; Nowak, 1991; Kingdon, 1997). Preferred grass
species reported by Kingdon (1997) include Cynodon, Sporobolus,
Digitaria, Panicum, Heteropogon, and Cenchrus
species. Drinking bouts usually occur in the morning and at dusk (Nowak,
1991). During the hottest time of the day (1200-1600 hours), herds
will typically rest and ruminate, although they seem to prefer resting in
the open rather than in shade (Nowak, 1991). In areas with high human
disturbance, buffalo will switch from continuous grazing to night-time foraging
(Kingdon, 1997).
With its large size, massive horns, and cohesive social dynamic, S.
caffer is a formidable fighter (Nowak, 1991). The average rate
of travel is 5.4 km per hour, although buffalo can run up to 57 km per hour
for short distances (Nowak, 1991). Coupled with the habit of charging
en masse, few predators use African buffalo as a regular food source (Alden
et al., 1995). Apart from humans, buffalo are hunted by lions
and crocodiles, who typically attack only old solitary animals and young
calves (Buchholtz, 1990).
Mud wallows are frequently used and apparently enjoyed by buffalo (Buchholtz,
1990; Nowak, 1991). The mud serves to cool the animals, as well as
forming a protective crust when dried, which discourages insets from biting
(Buchholtz, 1990). S. caffer also gets relief from pests through symbiotic
relationships with birds like oxpeckers and cattle egrets, which remove biting
and sucking insects from their skin (Buchholtz, 1990).
Distribution
One of the most widespread African ungulates, African buffalo are found
throughout most of Africa south of the Sahara, save for southern Africa where
they are no longer present (Buchholtz, 1990).
Countries: Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon,
Central African Republic, Chad, Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo,
Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia [reintroduced],
Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Liberia, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Namibia,
Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan,
Swaziland, United Republic of Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe (IUCN,
2004)
Range Map (Redrawn from IAE, 1998)
Conservation Status
S. caffer is a lower risk, conservation dependent species according
to the IUCN (2004). It is not listed on any CITES appendix (2005).
The total population of African buffalo is approximately 900,000 animals
across the continent (East, 1999). Nearly all of these animals are
savannah buffalo, accounting for 830,000 individuals, broken down as such:
S. c. brachyceros - 27,000; S. c. aequinoctialis -133,000;
S. c. caffer - 670,000 (East, 1999). Censusing forest buffalo
is very difficult, but an approximate population figure is 60,000, 75%of
which inhabit protected areas (East, 1999). African buffalo are threatened
by habitat loss and hunting pressures (Kingdon, 1997; IUCN, 2005).
Rinderpest (a disease) has proven a major threat to this species in
the past; an epidemic in southern Africa during the 1890s virtually eliminated
the buffalo population (they have never recovered), while its spread into
east Africa destroyed 90% of the region's buffalo population (Buchholtz,
1990; Kingdon, 1997). The potential for another rinderpest outbreak
remains a threat today (IUCN, 2005).
Remarks
Because of their power and disposition, African buffalo are considered the
most dangerous game species in Africa (Nowak, 1991). Nonetheless (or
perhaps because of their reputation), S. caffer has been heavily hunted for
trophy and food (Nowak, 1991). Unlike the Asian water buffalo,
domestication attempts with this species have proven unsuccessful (Buchholtz,
1990).
The scientific name Syncerus caffer is derived as follows: Sun
(Greek) together; keras (Greek) the horn of an animal: a reference
to the closely abutting bases (or boss) of the horns in adult male Cape buffalo.
Cafer (L) of Caffraria/Kaffraria, the country of the Kaffirs (Africa).
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Local names
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Nyati, Mbogo [Swahili] (Kingdon, 1997)
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French
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Buffle d'Afrique (Buchholtz, 1990)
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German
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Afrikanischer Büffel, Kaffernbüffel (Buchholtz, 1990)
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